>[!abstract] >The idea proposed by [[Porter (1996)]] that the undifferentiated pursuit of operational effectiveness eventually leads all competitors to achieve roughly the same cost basis from best practices, resulting in zero-sum competition, static or declining prices, and margin pressure that compromise the ability to invest in the long term. >[!related] >- **North** (upstream): — >- **West** (similar): — >- **East** (different): — >- **South** (downstream): —